Words and things. Michel Foucault (Fragment) Today we present a fragment of a text emblematic French theorist and creator Michel Foucault (1926-1984). We care because, in it, Foucault reflects on language, its articulation-both syntagmatic-paradigmatic perspective and from the philological-making to build a sustained discourse in the European tradition that goes from the grammar of Port-Royal grammarians to philologists, philosophers and linguists of the nineteenth century, but that goes beyond grammar to you constitute mere reflection in a speech that celebrates and lays claim to the possibilities of (re) creation of language.
Fragment WORDS AND THINGS.
Michel Foucault
3. THE THEORY OF THE VERB
The proposition is, with respect to language, representation with regard to thought: its most general and most basic, since, from the time of the breakdown, is no longer the speech
but only its elements scattered like so many materials. Below are the words proposition, but the language is not satisfied in them. It is true that originally produced only simple man cries, but they did not start to be language, but the day locked-even if only within the monosyllable-a relationship that belonged to the order of the proposition.
Howl of primitive man that debate does not become a true word is just as
lateral expression of their suffering and whether it is for a trial or a statement such as "I drown" 28 The word that stands for itself and the holds over the screams and noise, is the proposition
hidden in it. The savage of Aveyron did not speak because, for him, the words were still makes things sound and the impressions they produced in their spirit did not receive the value proposition. Very well could pronounce the word "milk" to the bowl that was offered, but this was only "the confused expression of that liquid food, container containing it and the desire that was being "oalabra 29 the sign never became representative of the thing, it never meant that
milk was warm, ready or was expected. Indeed, the proposition is that between the sound sign of immediate values \u200b\u200bof expression and establishes, so sovereign, as linguistic ability.
For classical thought, language begins where there is no longer speech, but speech. When we say "no", does not translate rejection by a cry, is contained in one word "whole proposition ... I do not hear that or do not believe that" .30 "Let's go directly to the proposition, the essential object of grammar." 31 There all the functions language are referred to three unique elements that are essential to form a sentence: the subject, the attribute and its link. In addition, the subject and the attribute is of the same nature as the proposition states that one is the same or belongs to another, and therefore they can, in
certain conditions, change their functions. The only difference, although crucial, is expressing the irreducibility of the verb: "to every proposition," says Hobbes32-must be three things: a
know two names, subject and predicate, and the link or intercourse. The two names wake up in the spirit the idea of \u200b\u200bone and the same thing, but gives birth intercourse the idea of \u200b\u200bthe reason why these
names have been imposed on these things. "The verb is the indispensable condition of all discourse, and where there is at least virtually, you can not say that there is a language. The nominal propositions always conceal the invisible presence of a verb and Adam Smith 33 believed that in its original form, the language did not consist only of impersonal verbs (such as "rain" or "thunder") and, from the verbal nucleus were stripping all other parts of speech, like so many details and secondary derivatives. The threshold is where language comes the word. It is therefore necessary to treat it as being mixed, that is, while , word between the words, captured by the same rules and, like them, obeys the laws of speed and consistency, and then click away from all of them, in a region that is not spoken of, but that's what speaking. Is on the edge of
speech, on the edge of what is said and what is said, right where the signs are in the process of becoming language.
And just this function that must be asked as a question-stripping of what has constantly reload, and darker. We must not stop, with Aristotle, that the verb means the times (many other words, adverbs, adjectives, nouns, can have temporary meanings). Nor should we stop, as did Scaliger, in the fact that it expresses actions or passions, while the names denote things, and permanent (as it exists right this very name of "action"). Do not give importance, as it did Buxtorf, to different persons of the verb, since some pronouns have also designate ownership. But to fully come to light immediately
what it is: the word says, ie, indicates "that the speech in which he used this word is the speech of a man who sees only the names, but the judges ".34 There is a sentence-and discourse-when we say assignment link between two things, when you say that this is aquello.35 All kind of verbs is referred to one, which means being. All others use secret of this unique feature, but the determinations have been coated with the mask: attributes have been added and instead of saying, "I am a singer," he says, "I sing" have been added indications of time and instead of saying, "before, I am a singer," he says, "I sang" Finally, some languages \u200b\u200bhave integrated
same subject and verb and Latinos do not read: ego Vivit, but alive . All this is not just a sedimentation tank and around and over a verbal function quite small, although essential: there is only the verb to be ... that has been in its simplicity ".36 The whole essence of language is contained in the word singular. Without it, everything would have remained silent and men, as some animals, could have made use of his voice, but none of those screams thrown in the thick rolling ever had the great chain of language.
In classical times, being rough language, this mass of signs placed in the globe to our question-is there deleted, but the language of new relations to be more difficult to apprehend because it states that the language and got it through a word, it says from inside himself, and yet could not exist as a language if that word alone, did not support all possible speech beforehand. Without a way of designating being, there would be language, but without language, there would be no
verb to be, it is only a part of it. This single word is to be represented in language, but also be representative of language-something that, by allowing state what he says, makes it susceptible of truth or error. And this is different from any sign can be satisfied, faithful, adjusted or not so designated, but are never true or false. The language is, from one end to another address, thanks to this unique power of a word that passes the system of signs towards the being of what is meant.
But whence comes this power? And what is the meaning, the words spilling, supports the proposition? The Port-Royal grammarians say that the meaning of the word was stated. Indicating very good language in which region was the absolute privilege, but not what it was. It is necessary to understand that the verb to be contains the idea of \u200b\u200baffirmation, for the word itself, affirmation, and the word itself also contain it, 37 is rather the affirmation of the idea that it is insured. But say one idea "is equivalent to stating its existence? This is what Bauzée thinks that it is a reason that the verb form has been received at the time variations: for the essence of things does not change, all that comes and goes is his existence, only she has a past and future 38 To which Condillac could see that if the existence can be removed from things, there is only one attribute and that the verb can affirm the death as life. We could say the verb is the coexistence of two representations: for example, the greenery and the tree of man and of life or death, hence, the verb tenses do not indicate that in which things have
existed at all, but a relative before or simultaneity of things between sí.39 Indeed, coexistence is not an attribute of the thing itself, but it is only a form of representation: to say that the green and the tree coexist ie they are linked in all impressions receipt or, at least in most of them.
Both the verb to be essential would be responsible for all the language relating to the representation it designates. Being towards which goes beyond the signs is neither more nor less than the being of thought.
By comparing the language with a picture, a grammarian of the late eighteenth century the names defined as shapes, colors and adjectives and the verb as the very fabric on which they appear. Invisible fabric, fully lined with the color and pattern of words, but language that gives the place where you can assert
painting what the word means is, ultimately, the representative nature of language, the fact should take its place in thought and that the only word that can cross the boundary of the signs and grounded in truth, never becomes more than the representation itself. While the function of the verb is identified with the mode of existence of language, which runs in full: speaking is, in turn, represented by signs and give them a synthetic form dominated by the verb. In the words of Destutt, the verb is the attribution: support and shape of all the attributes, "the verb to be is found in all propositions, because you can not say that something is so without saying, therefore, it is ... But this word is, appears in all proposals and is always part of the attribute, is always the beginning and its core is the general and common attribute ".40
see how, once you arrive at this point of generality, the function of the verb can not make another thing that separated, it will disappear the unitary domain of general grammar. At the time it releases the dimension of pure grammar, the proposal will no longer be a unit of syntax. The verb appear
there between the other words with its own matching system, reflections and speed. And at the other end, appears to demonstrate the power of language in a stand-alone issue, rather archaic grammar. And throughout the nineteenth century the language was asked about his enigmatic nature of verb: where is closer to being, which is more able to name, to transmit or make flash fundamental sense, to make it absolutely clear. From Hegel to Mallarme, this
marveled at the relationship between being and language rocked the reintroduction of the verb in the homogeneous order of grammatical functions.
4. JOINT
The verb to be, a mixture of attribution and assertion, on the crossroads of discourse and radical opportunity to speak first, define the first invariant of the proposition, which is the most fundamental. Beside him, on one hand and other elements: parts of speech or "prayer." These lands are still indifferent and are only determined by the small figure, almost imperceptible and central, which means being, work on this "Judicator" as the thing that has to be judged-the judicando and res judicata, the judicado41
How this picture can become pure proposition in different sentences? How can the discourses of the content of a representation? Since it uses words that name, part by part, to what is given to representation.
The word means, ie in nature's name. Given name and is directed toward such representation and to no other. Whereas, compared to the uniformity of the verb "is never more than the universal set of attribution-names abound at infinity. There were as many as things to be named. But each name would be and so strongly linked to the unique representation which means that you could not make the slightest attribution, and the language would fall below himself, "if we had more substantive than names, would be multiplied endlessly. These words, as many would overload the memory, not would no order on the objects of our knowledge and, consequently, in our ideas, and all our discourse would be in utter confusion ".42 The
names can not function in the sentence and allow the award unless one of the two (attribute, at least) to appoint any common element in several performances. The generality of the name is so necessary for the parts of speech the designation of being for! a form of the proposition.
This generality can be acquired in two ways. Or by a horizontal joint, which groups together individuals who have some identity and separates those who are different as well as a generalization of successive groups growing larger (and less numerous), can also be subdivided almost infinite new distinctions and thus return to the proper name of that part, 43 the whole order of the coordination and subordination is covered by the language and each of these points is there
with it: the individual to the species, after this gender and class, language is built exactly on the growing domain of generalities, this function is manifested taxinómica,
in language by nouns: it is said, an animal, a quadruped, a dog, a poodle. "Or by a vertical articulation -linked to the first, they are indispensable to each other, "this second joint distinguishes things subsisting by themselves, those modifications, features, accidents or characters, which can never be an independent state: the depth, substance , on the surface, the qualities, this cut-this metaphysics, as Adam Smith said 45 - manifested in the speech
the presence of adjectives that designate, in representation, all that can not stand alone. The first articulation of language (if we put aside the verb to be which is the condition the same as part of speech) is because, according to two orthogonal axes: one is the general singular individual, the other is substance to the quality. In their lives crossing the common name, at one extreme the name and on the other adjective.
However, these two types of representation does not distinguish words from each other rather than the exact extent to which the performance is analyzed based on this model. As the authors of Port-Royal: the words "meaning things are called nouns, such as soil, sun. The mean way, while pointing out the subject to which they agree, names are called adjectives, as good, fair, round ".46 Among the articulation of language and representation is, however, a game. When we of "whiteness" designate a quality course, but we designate by a noun: when we talk about "human", an adjective used to describe individuals who subsist by themselves. This slide indicates that the language does not obey laws different from the representation, but on the contrary, that is himself, and in its own thickness, relations identical to those of representation. Is not it, in effect, a split representation and has the power to combine with the elements of representation than the first, but has no other function and meaning that represent? If the speech takes over the adjective that designates a change and it adds value within the same sentence as the substance of the proposition, then the adjective becomes a noun, on the contrary, the name that behaves like an accident within the phrase becomes, in turn, into an adjective, although designated as an afterthought, substances. "Because the substance is what auction itself has been called Substantive all the words that exist by themselves in speech, even if mean accidents.
And, conversely, is called adjectives mean those substances, when, by the way mean, should join other names in the speech ".47 The elements of the proposal have relations with each identical to the representation but this identity is not assured, point by point so that any substance would be designated by a noun and an adjective all by accident.
is a global identity and nature: the proposition is a representation, is built on the same modes her, but the power belongs to articulate in one way or another representation that she transformed into speech. It is, in itself, a representation articulates another, with a possibility of displacement is at the same time, freedom of speech and difference of languages.
This is the first layer of joint: the superficial, in any case, the more apparent. From now on, everything can become discourse. But in an undifferentiated language not yet available, to highlight the names, but the monotony of the verb be and its attributive function. However, the elements of representation are articulated according to a complex network of relationships (succession, subordination, consequence) that is necessary to pass through language so that it becomes truly representative
. From there, all words, syllables and even letters, circulating between nouns and verbs, to designate those ideas that Port-Royal called "ancillary", 48 are necessary prepositions and conjunctions are required syntax signs that indicate the relationship identity or agreement, and dependency or system: 49 marks plural or gender, cases of declines, and we need, finally, words that relate to the common names that designate individuals-those items or those demo that Lemercier ILAM concretores "or" desabstractores. " 50 Such
many words is a joint below the unit name (noun or adjective) as is required by the naked form of the proposition, none of them have for themselves and in splendid isolation, a representative content that is fixed and determined, not coated or even an idea, accessory, but once that has been linked to other words , while the nouns and verbs are "absolute meanings, they have no meaning unless a way relativo.51 undoubtedly be directed to the representation
, exist only in so far as this, the analyzed, reveals the internal network of these relationships, but they themselves are more valuable than giving them all which includes grammar. Establish a new joint and mixed nature of language, joint that is both representative and grammar, without any of these two orders can dominate over the other. Behold
sentence syntactic element is populated with a cut thinner than the great figures of the proposition. This new cut puts the general grammar to the necessity of a choice: either continue with the analysis below the nominal unit and to appear before the significance of minor elements is built, or reduce by a march down the unit nominal measures restricted recognize and return to find the representative efficiency under full words in the particles, syllables, and even the letters themselves.
These possibilities open up, rather they are prescribed, from the moment that the theory of language is intended to give the speech and analysis of its securities. Define the point of heresy that shares the grammar of the eighteenth century. "Assume," says Harris, that any definition is, as the body
, divisible into an infinity of different meanings, themselves infinitely divisible? This would be an absurdity, it is absolutely necessary to admit that there are significant sounds, none of whose parties may have significance in itself. " 52 The significance disappears from the moment that securities of the words are dissociated or suspended, in its independence, displayed materials that are not articulated by the thought and whose links can not refer to the speech.
is a "mechanical" typical of the agreements, schemes of the flexures, syllables and sounds, and no representative value may account for this mechanism. It is necessary to treat the language as to those machines that are improving slowly: 53 in its simplest form the sentence only consists of a subject, a verb and an attribute, and any addition of sense demands a comprehensive new proposal, so rudimentary machines represent principles of movement which are different for each of its organs. But the refined, subject to one and the same principle all its organs, they are no more than intermediaries, media processing, application points, also to improve the masquerading
languages \u200b\u200bthe meaning of a grammatical proposition for agencies in themselves, are not representative value and whose role is to specify, linking the elements, indicating their current assessments.
In a phrase and a single stroke can make the relationship of time, therefore, possession, location falling within the subject-verb number attribute, but can not be enclosed by a distinction so vast. Thence the importance of taking, with Bauzée, 54 complement theories of subordination. Hence also the increasing role of syntax, at the time of Port-Royal, it was identified with the construction and word order, and then with the internal development of the proposal, 55 to be
Sicard became independent, she is the "ordering their own way to each word" .58 It outlines the autonomy of grammar, as will be defined at the end of the century, Sylvestre of Saci, which, together with Sicard is the first to distinguish the logical analysis of the proposition and grammatical
frase.57 understand why the analysis of this kind were suspended while the speech became the subject of grammar, since it reached a layer of the joint where the securities
crumbled to dust, is passed to the other side of the grammar, that in which the dam was not in a domain that was the use of history and syntax, in the eighteenth century, was considered the arbitrary place where fantasies spread their habits of each pueblo.58
In Anyway, in the eighteenth century could not be more than abstract possibilities and no foreshadowing of what would become the philology, not only were privileged branch of an election. Against this, from the same point of heresy, a reflection that we develop for ourselves and for the science of language we have built since the nineteenth century, is devoid of value, but which, however, keeps all the analysis of verbal signs within the discourse. And that, precisely for this coating, part of the positive figures of knowledge. Function was sought nominal dark invested and believed hidden in these words, in these syllables, these push-ups, in these letters that the analysis of the proposition, too loose, let them pass through your screen. After all, as the authors of Port-Royal, all particles of the link have a certain content because they represent the way objects are linked and that they are linked in our representations. 59 Is not is supposed to have names like all the others? But instead of replacing objects
have taken the place of gestures by which men indicate or simulate the ties and sucesión.60 is these words that have either gradually lost its proper meaning (in Indeed, this is not always visible
was because it was linked to gestures, body and the situation of the speaker) or are incorporated in other words that are stable support and to which, however, they provide all Both modificaciones.61 system that all words, whatever they are, are dormant names: verbs adjectives have added names to the verb be, the conjunctions and prepositions are the names of gestures still thereafter, the declensions and conjugations are nothing more than names absorbed.
Now, words can break open and release all the names flying deposited in them. In the words of Le Bel as an essential principle of the analysis, "no assembly in which the parties have not been separately before being assembled," 62 which enabled him to reduce all words to items in which syllabic reappear at the end . forgotten the old names-the only words that were possible to exist next to the verb to be: Romulus, for example, 63 came from Rome and moliri (building), and Rome is
Ro, designating force (Robur) and Ma, indicating greatness (magnus). Similarly, Thiébault discovers in "abandoning" three latent meanings: a, that "presents the idea of \u200b\u200bthe trend or the fate of one thing to another" ban, which "gives the idea of \u200b\u200bthe entire social body" and do, which means "the act by which one detaches from one thing" .64
And if you need to reach, below the syllables, to the letters themselves, there are collected the values \u200b\u200bof a rudimentary description.
A beautifully presented this Court of Gébelin to its largest and most perishable glory "lip touch, the easiest to put into play, the sweetest, most gracious, used to describe the first
beings known to man, those around them must all" (Dad, Mom, kiss). In contrast, "teeth are as tough as mobile and flexible lips, the intonations of them come are strong, sound, touch noisy ... Thanks dental thunders, tinkling, trembles through him designating the drums, timpani, trumpets. " At the same time, vocal, isolated, can deploy the secret of the ancient names in which the use locked them: A for possession (if any), E for existence I
by power, or by the shock (the eyes are rounded), U by moisture and, therefore, the humor.65 And maybe, in the cavity oldest in our history, consonants and vowels, distinguished only in accordance confused with two groups, were something like the only two names articulated by the human language: the singers voice spoke of the passions, the harsh consonants of needs. 66 It can distinguish between speech still rough forest north of the guttural, hunger and cold, and the southern languages, made all of voice, born of the morning meeting of pastors, when "arose from the pure crystal of sources the first fires love.
In full thickness and even more archaic sounds for the first time I tore the scream, the language retains its representational function, in each of its joints, from the beginning of time, has been named. In itself is nothing but a huge sound of names that are covered, are enclosed, hidden and yet, remain to allow representations to analyze or compose more complex. The interior of the sentences, just where the meaning seems to take a silent supporting
insignificant syllables, there is always a name asleep, a form that is enclosed within its walls reflect sound representation invisible and therefore indelible. For nineteenth-century philology, such tests are, in the strict sense, "dead." But it was not the same for a whole-language experience first esoteric and mystical, at the time of Saint-Marc, Reveroni, Fabre d'Olivet, in Oegger later literary resurgence once the riddle of word on their being solid, with Mallarme, Roussel, Leiris and Ponge. The idea that by destroying the words, they are neither pure noise or arbitrary elements, but what lies are other words that pulverized his
turn release others, this idea is both negative of all modern science of language and myth in which transcribe the darkest powers of language and the more real. It must, without doubt, it is arbitrary because it can define what condition is significant, that language may become the subject of science.
But is that has not stopped talking beyond itself, to penetrate the endless values \u200b\u200bas far as could be reached, which we can talk on it in the infinite murmur which tied the literature. But in classical times, the relationship was not the same, the two figures were covered exactly, so that the whole language was understood by the general form of the proposition, it was necessary that every word, in the smallest sus partes fuera una denominación meticulosa.
Notes 28. Destutt de Tracy, Elements of Ideology, t. ii, p. 87.
29. J. Itard, Report on the further development of Victor of Aveyron, 1806. Reedición in L. Malson, The Wild Child, París, 1964, p. 209.
30. Destutt de Tracy, Elements of Ideology, t. ii, p. 60.
31. U. Domergue, Grammaire generale analytical, p. 34.
32. Hobbes Logic.
33. Adam Smith, Considerations Regarding The First Formation of Languages, trans. francesa cit., p. 421.
34. Logic of Port Royal, pp. 106-7.
35. Condillac, Grammaire, p. 115.
36. Logique de Port-Royal, p. 107. See Condillac, Grammaire, pp. 132-4. In L'origine des connaisances, discusses the history of the verb in a somewhat different, but not its function. D. Thiébault, Grammaire philosophique, Paris, 1802, t.1, p. 216.
37. See Logique de Port-Royal, p. 107 and Abbe Girard, Les vrais Principes de la langue Française, p. 56.
38. Bauzée, Grammaire générale, t. i, pp. 426 ff.
39. Condillac, Grammaire, pp. 185-6.
40. Destutt de Tracy, Elements d'Idéologie, t. ii, p. 64.
41. U. Domergue, Grammaire générale to analytique, p. 11.
42. Condillac, Grammaire. p. 152.
43. ID ibid., p. 155.
44. ID, ibid., P. 153. See also Adam Smith, Considerations Concerning the first formation of languages, trans. French. cit. 408-10.
45. A. Smith, loc. cit., p. 410.
46. Logique de Port-Royal, p.
101 47. Logique de Port-Royal, pp. 59-60.
48. Ibid., P. 101.
49. Duclos, Commentary to the Grammaire de Port-Royd, Paris, 1754, p. 213.
50. JB Lemercier, Lettre sur la possibilité de faire of an Art-Science grammaire, Paris, 1806, pp. 63-5.
51. Harris, Hermes, pp. 30-1 (see also Adam Smith, Considerations conccrning the first formation of languages, trans. French. Cit 408-9).
52. ID, ibid, p. 57.
53. ID, ibid., pp.
430-1 54. Bauzée (General Grammar) Emplea, por primera vez, el término "complemento".
55. Logic of Port Royal, pp. 117ss.
56. Abate Sicard, Elements of general grammar, t. ii, p. 2.
57. Sylvestre de Saci, Principles of General Grammar, 1799. See también U. Domergue, Grammaire generale analytical pp. 29-30.
58. See, por ejemplo, al Abate Girard, The True Principles of the French Language, Paris, 1747, pp. 82-3.
59. Logic of Port Royal, P. 59.
60. Batteaux, Reconsideration of pre determined from the inversion, pp.
23-4 61. Idem, ibid., Pp. 24-8.
62. Le Bel, Anatomy of the language Latin, París, 1764, p 24
63. Idem, ibid., P. 8.
64. D. Thiebault, Philosophical Grammar. París, 1802, pp. 172-3.
65. Short Gebelin, Natural History of the Word, ed. 1816, pp. 98-104.
66. Rousseau, Essay on the origin of Zangu, Works, ed. 1826, t. xiii, pp. 144-51, including 188-92.
Webquest: Playing with the tangram 
you can do silhouettes of objects, animals or people: 
Its main feature is that all the pieces together form a square. So we just have to decide what size we want to do (in our case 12 cm). 
We can do 
